Table 1 Characteristics of participants according to gestational diabetes (GDM) status

Pre-pregnancy age (years)

29.6 (3.8)

30.2 (2.9)

0.42

Pre-pregnancy age category (%)

 Age ≤25 years

14.4 (33)

3.6 (1)

0.11

 Age >25 years

85.7 (197)

96.4 (27)

Non-fasting serum lipids (mg/dl)^a

607.1 (113.6)

678.7 (122.7)

0.0009

Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m²)

26.1 (6.4)

27.0 (4.6)

0.47

Pre-pregnancy BMI status (%)

 <25 kg/m²

54.8 (126)

46.4 (13)

0.40

 ≥25 kg/m²

45.2 (104)

53.6 (15)

Pre-pregnancy waist circumference (cm)

87.8 (14.8)

90.2 (13.2)

0.41

Pre-pregnancy waist circumference status (%)

 ≤88 cm

60.9 (140)

57.1 (16)

0.70

 >88 cm

39.1 (90)

42.9 (12)

Pre-pregnancy waist-to-height ratio status (%)

 ≤0.5

40.0 (92)

21.4 (6)

0.06

 >0.5

60.0 (138)

78.6 (22)

Parity and gravidity (%)

 Never pregnant

41.3 (95)

35.7 (10)

0.85

 Pregnant without live birth

7.0 (16)

7.1 (2)

 Pregnant with previous birth

51.7 (119)

57.1 (16)

Race/ethnicity (%)

 Non-Hispanic white

85.7 (197)

75.0 (21)

0.14

 Other

14.4 (33)

25.0 (7)

Pre-pregnancy smoking status (%)

 Yes

6.5 (15)

7.1 (2)

0.90

 No

93.5 (215)

92.9 (26)

 <10 kg

46.1 (106)

32.1 (9)

0.05

 10–19.9 kg

31.7 (73)

25.0 (7)

 ≥20 kg

22.2 (51)

42.9 (12)

Pregnancy weight gain (%)^c

 Gained recommended weight

28.2 (59)

35.7 (10)

0.05

 Gained < recommended weight

30.6 (64)

46.4 (13)

 Gained > recommended weight

41.2 (86)

17.9 (5)

Maternal birth weight (%)

 Low (<2000 g)

1.7 (4)

14.3 (4)

0.001

 Normal (2000–4000 g)

89.6 (206)

82.1 (23)

 High (>4000 g)

8.7 (20)

3.6 (1)

Maternal history of GDM (%)

 Yes

0.9 (2)

14.3 (4)

<0.0001

 No

99.1 (228)

85.7 (24)